DWAYNE MICHAEL CARTER

Dwayne Michael Carter, Jr.             (born September 27,1982), known by hisstage nameLil Wayne, is anAmerican rapper fromNew Orleans,Louisiana. In 1991, at the age of nine, Lil Wayne joinedCash Money Recordsas the youngest member of the label, and half of the duoThe B.G.'z, alongside fellow New Orleans-basedrapperLil' Doogie. In 1996, Lil Wayne formed theSouthern hip hopgroupHot Boys, with his Cash Money label-matesJuvenile,Young Turkand Lil' Doogie (who now went by B.G.). Hot Boys debuted withGet It How U Live!that same year.Lil Wayne gained most of his success with the group's major selling albumGuerrilla Warfare(1999). Along with being the flagship artist of Cash Money Records, Lil Wayne is also thechief executive officer(CEO) of his own imprint,Young Money Entertainment, which he foundedin 2005.Lil Wayne's debut studio albumTha Block Is Hot(1999), wascertified platinumby theRecording Industry Association of America(RIAA). His following albums,Lights Out(2000) and500 Degreez(2002), werecertified gold. He reached higher popularity withTha Carter(2004), which was led by the single "Go D.J.", also appearing onDestiny's Child's top ten single "Soldier", that same year. The album was followed byTha Carter II(2005) and severalmixtapesand collaborations throughout 2006 and 2007.Tha Carter III(2008) became Lil Wayne's most successful album to date, with first-week sales of over 1 million copies in the United States. It included the number-one single "Lollipop", as well as "A Milli" and "Got Money", and won theGrammy AwardforBest Rap Album.Following the success ofTha Carter III, Lil Wayne decided to record arockalbum titledRebirth, in which he is featured playing guitar and singing with the help ofAuto-Tune. The album, released in 2010, was certified gold by the RIAA, despite a generally negative critical response. In March 2010, Lil Wayne began serving an 8-month prison sentence in New York after being convicted of criminal possession of a weapon stemming from an incident in July 2007. Wayne's eighth albumI Am Not a Human Being(2010), was released during his prison sentence. His 2011 album and first following his release,Tha Carter IV, sold 964,000 copies in its first week of availability in the United States. It featured the singles "6 Foot 7 Foot", "How to Love" and "She Will".[5]On September 27, 2012, Lil Wayne passedElvisPresleyas the male with the most entries on theBillboardHot 100chart with 109 songs.[6]Early lifeDwayne Michael Carter, Jr. was born on September 27, 1982, and grew up in theHollygroveneighborhood ofNew Orleans, Louisiana.[7]He was born when his mother, a cook, was 19 years old. His parents divorced when he was 2, and his father permanently abandoned the family. Although Lil Wayne andBirdmanhave a father–son relationship and Birdman calls Carter his son, Lil Wayne’s biological father and namesake (Dwayne Carter)is still alive. Lil Wayne has also spoken about hisdeceased stepfather, Rabbit, who he has said heconsiders his real father. Carter has a tattoo dedicated to Rabbit, who was murdered before Carter became a star.[8]Carter enrolled in thegifted program of Lafayette Elementary School and in the drama club ofEleanor McMain Secondary School.[9]Lil Wayne attended McMain in the early 1990s for two years. He moved to theMarion Abramson Senior High School.[10]In a CBS interview withKatie Couric, Wayne described why he goes by the name of "Wayne" instead of his given name, Dwayne. Carter explained, "I dropped the D because I'm a junior and my father is living and he's not in mylife and he's never been in my life. So I don't want to be Dwayne, I'd rather be Wayne". Couric asked Wayne if his father knew of this and Wayne replied with a smile, "He knows now."[11]He wrote his first rap song at age eight.[12]In the summer of 1991, he metBryan Williams, rapper and owner ofCash Money Records. Carter recorded freestyle raps on Williams's answering machine, leading him to mentor the young Carter and include him in Cash Money-distributed songs. He also recorded his first evercollaborationalbumTrue Storywith rapperB.G.. At the time, Carter was 11, and B.G. was 14, and was billed as "The B.G.'z".[13]When he was 12, he played the part of theTin Manin his middle school drama club's production ofThe Wiz.[14]At age 12, he accidentally shot himself with a 9 mm handgun, and off-duty police officer Robert Hoobler drove him to the hospital.[15]At McMain Magnet School, Carter was an honor student, but he dropped out at the age of 14 to focus on a musical career.[16]Career1996–99: Career beginnings and Hot BoysIn 1996, Carter joined theHot Boysalong with rappersJuvenile,B.G., andTurk. At age 15, Carter was the youngest member at the time. Hot Boys' debut albumGet It How U Live!was released the same year, followed in 1999 by the group's major-label debutGuerrilla Warfare,[7]which reached No. 1 on theBillboardTop R&B/Hip-Hop Albumschart and No. 5 on theBillboard 200.[17]During their career, the HotBoys had two charting singles, "We on Fire" fromGet It How U Live!and "I Need a Hot Girl" fromGuerrilla Warfare.[18]Carter was also featured on Juvenile's single "Back That Azz Up", which reached No. 18 on theBillboard Hot 100and No. 5 on the Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Singles& Tracks.[19]Let 'Em Burn, a compilation album of unreleased tracks recorded during 1999 and 2000, came out in 2003, several yearsafter the group disbanded.[20]It reached No. 3 on the Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums chart and No. 14 on theBillboard200.[17]1999–2002:Tha Block Is Hot,Lights Out, and500 DegreezCarter's debut solo albumTha Block Is Hotwas released when he was 17 and featured significant contributions from theHot Boys. It debuted at No. 3 on the Billboard 200 and was later certified platinum by theRIAA.[7]The album earned Carter a 1999Sourcemagazine nomination for "Best New Artist",[21]and also became a Top Ten hit.[7]The lead single was "Tha Block Is Hot". After the release ofTha Blockis Hot, Carter was featured on the single "BlingBling", with B.G., Juvenile, and Big Tymers. His verse appeared only on the radio version of thesong, while on the album version he performedon the chorus.His 2000 follow-up albumLights Outfailed to attain the level of success achieved by his debut[7]but was certified gold by RIAA.[22]Critics noted the lack of coherent narratives in his verses as evidence that he had yet to mature tothe level of his fellow Hot Boys.[23]The lead single was "Get Off the Corner", which was noticed for an improvement in its lyrical content and style. The second single, which received less attention, was "Shine" featuring the Hot Boys. Near the release ofLights Out, LilWayne was featured on the single, "Number One Stunna" withBig Tymersand Juvenile, which peaked at No. 24 on theHot Rap Trackschart.Lil Wayne's third album500 Degreez, released in 2002, followed the format of his previous two, with significant contributions from the Hot Boys andMannie Fresh. While being certified gold like its predecessor,[22]it also failed to match the success of his debut.[7]The title wasa reference to the recently estranged Hot Boys member Juvenile's recording,400 Degreez.[24]The lead single was "Way of Life" which failed to match the success of his previous singles. After the release of500 Degreez, Wayne was featured on the single "Neva Get Enuf" by3LW.[25]2003–06:Tha Carter,Tha Carter II, andLike Father, Like SonIn the summer of 2004, Wayne's albumTha Carterwas released, marking what critics considered advancement in his rapping style and lyrical themes.[26]In addition, the album's cover art featured the debut of Wayne'snow-signaturedreadlocks.[7]Tha CartergainedWayne significant recognition, selling 878,000 copies in the United States, while the single "Go DJ" became a Top 5 Hit on the R&B/Hip-Hopchart.[27]After the release ofTha Carter, Lil Wayne was featured inDestiny's Child'ssingle "Soldier" withT.I., which peaked at No. 3 on theBillboard Hot 100and theHot R&B/Hip-Hop Songscharts.[28]Tha Carter II, the follow-up to the originalTha Carteralbum, was released in December 2005, this time without production by longtimeCash Money RecordsproducerMannie Fresh, who had since left the label.Tha Carter IIsold more than 238,000 copies in its first week of release, debuting at No. 2 on theBillboard200albums chart, and went on to sell 2,000,000 copies worldwide. The lead single "Fireman" became a hit in the US, peaking at 32 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart. Other singles included "Grown Man" withCurrensy, "Hustler Musik", and "Shooter" with R&B singerRobin Thicke. Lil Wayne also appeared on a remix ofBobby Valentino's"Tell Me", which rose to No. 13 on the U.S. R&B Charts. In 2005, Lil Wayne was named president of Cash Money, and in the same year he foundedYoung Money Entertainmentas an imprint of Cash Money.[29]However, as of late 2007, Lil Wayne reported that he has stepped down from the management of both labels and has handed management of Young Money over to Cortez Bryant.[30]In 2006, Lil Wayne collaborated with rapperBirdmanfor the albumLike Father, Like Son, whose first single "Stuntin' Like My Daddy", reached No. 21 on theBillboard Hot 100.2006–08: Mixtapes and collaborationsLil Wayne performing at Voodoo Music Experience in 2008.Instead of a follow-up solo album, Lil Wayne reached his audience through a plethora of mixtapes and guest appearances on a variety of pop and hip-hop singles.[7]Of his many mixtapes,Dedication 2andDa Drought 3received the most media exposure and critical review.Dedication 2, released in 2006, paired Lil Wayne with DJ Drama and contained the acclaimed socially conscious track "Georgia Bush," in which Lil Wayne critiqued former US presidentGeorge W. Bush's response to the effects ofHurricane Katrinaon the city of New Orleans.Da Drought 3was released the following year and was available for free legal download. It contained Lil Wayne rapping over avariety of beats from recent hits by other musicians. Numerous of features in prominent hip-hop magazines such asXXL[31]andVibe[16]covered the mixtape. Christian Hoard ofRolling Stonemagazine considered the mixtapesDa Drought 3andThe Drought Is Over 2 (The Carter 3 Sessions)"among the best albums of 2007."[9]Despite no album release for two years, Lil Wayne appeared in numerous singles as a featured performer, including "Gimme That" byChris Brown, "Make It Rain" byFat Joe, "You" byLloyd, and "We Takin' Over" byDJ Khaled(also featuringAkon,T.I.,Rick Ross, Fat Joe, andBirdman), "Duffle Bag Boy" byPlayaz Circle, "Sweetest Girl (Dollar Bill)" byWyclef Jean(also featuringAkon), and the remix to "I'm So Hood" byDJ Khaled(also featuringT-Pain,Young Jeezy,Ludacris,Busta Rhymes,Big Boi, Fat Joe,Birdman, and Rick Ross). All these singles charted within the top 20 spots on theBillboardHot 100, Hot Rap Tracks, andHot R&B/Hip-Hop Songscharts. On Birdman's 2007 album5 * Stunna, Lil Wayne appeared on the singles "100Million" and "I Run This" among several other tracks. Wayne also appeared on tracks from albumsGetbackbyLittle Brother,American GangsterbyJay-Z, andGraduationbyKanye WestandInsomniacbyEnrique Iglesias. "Make it Rain", aScott Storchproduction that peaked atnumber 13 on the Hot 100 and number two on the Hot Rap Tracks chart,[32]was nominated for theGrammy Award for Best Rap Performance by a Duo or Groupfor 2008.[33]Vibemagazine ranked a list of 77 of Lil Wayne's songs from 2007 and ranked his verse in DJ Khaled's "We Takin Over" as his best of 2007, with "Dough Is What I Got" (a freestyle over thebeat of Jay-Z's "Show Me What You Got") fromDa Drought 3the second song.[16]At the end of 2007, an MTV poll selected Lil Wayne as "Hottest MC in the Game",[34]The New Yorkermagazine ranked him "Rapper of the Year",[13]andGQmagazine named him "Workaholic of the Year".[35]In 2008 he was named "Best MC" byRolling Stone.[9]Another article, built around Lil Wayne's 2007 mixtape work, cites hiscreative practice as an example of post performance creative practice.[36]2008–10:Tha Carter III,We Are Young Money, andRebirthLil Wayne performing in concert atRogers Arenain Vancouver B.C., January 2009In 2007, Lil Wayne stated that he would reunitewith Hot Boys, with plans to release an album after B.G.'s solo albumToo Hood to Be Hollywoodwas completed.[37]Tha Carter IIIwas originally scheduled to be released in 2007,though it was delayed after several recordings were leaked and distributed through mixtapes, including "The Drought Is Over Pt. 2" and "The Drought Is Over Pt. 4". Lil Wayne initially planned to releaseThe Leak, a separate album with leaked songs and four additional tracks, on December 18, 2007, withTha Carter IIIdelayed to March 18, 2008.[38]Instead,The Leakbecame anEPwith five songs and was released digitally on December 25, 2007.[39]Tha Carter IIIwas released on June 10, 2008, with first-week sales of over 1 million copies, the first to do so since50 Cent'sThe Massacre(2005).[40]The first single "Lollipop", featuringStatic Major, became the rapper's most successful song at the time, topping theBillboard Hot 100and becoming his first top 10 single as a solo artist and his first number one on the chart. The third single "Got Money", featuring T-Pain, peaked at number 13 on the Billboard 100. The album went on to win four Grammy Awards, including best rap album and best rap song, which he won for "Lollipop".[41]On July 14, 2008, theRecording Industry Association of AmericacertifiedTha Carter IIItwo times platinum.[42]In October 2008, Lil Wayne announced plans to MTV News to re-release the album with new tracks, including a duet withLudacrisand remixes of "A Milli".[43]Lil Wayne also appeared on R&B singles "Girls Around the World" by Lloyd, "Love In This Club, Part II" byUsher, "Official Girl" byCassie, "I'm So Paid" byAkon, "Turnin' Me On" byKeri Hilson, and "Can't Believe It" by T-Pain; rap singles "My Life" byThe Game, "Shawty Say" byDavid Banner, "Swagga Like Us" byT.I., "Cutty Buddy" byMike Jones,All My Life (In the Ghetto)byJay Rockand the remix to"Certified" byGlasses Malone; and pop single "Let It Rock" by newCash MoneyartistKe

MARTIN LUTHER KING JR

Martin Luther King, Jr."Martin Luther King" and "MLK" redirect here. For other uses, seeMartin Luther King (disambiguation)andMLK (disambiguation).Martin Luther King, Jr.King in 1964BornMichael King, Jr.January 15, 1929Atlanta,Georgia, U.S.DiedApril 4, 1968(aged 39)Memphis, Tennessee, U.S.MonumentsMartin Luther King, Jr. MemorialAlma materMorehouse College(B.A.)Crozer Theological Seminary(B.D.)Boston University(Ph.D.)OccupationClergyman, activistOrganizationSouthern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC)Political movementAfrican-American Civil Rights Movement,Peace movementReligionBaptist(Progressive National Baptist Convention)Spouse(s)Coretta Scott King(1953–1968)ChildrenYolanda Denise-King(1955–2007)Martin Luther King III(b. 1957)Dexter Scott King(b. 1961)Bernice Albertine King(b. 1963)ParentsMartin Luther King, Sr.Alberta Williams KingAwardsNobel Peace Prize(1964),Presidential Medal of Freedom(1977, posthumous),Congressional Gold Medal(2004, posthumous)SignatureMartin Luther King, Jr.(January 15, 1929 – April 4, 1968) was an American clergyman, activist, humanitarian, and leader in theAfrican-American Civil Rights Movement. He is best known for his role in the advancement ofcivil rightsusing nonviolentcivil disobedience. King has become a national icon in the history ofAmerican progressivism.[1]BornMichael King, hisfatherchanged his name in honor ofGermanreformerMartin Luther. ABaptistminister, King became a civil rights activist early in his career. He led the 1955Montgomery Bus Boycottand helped found theSouthern Christian Leadership Conference(SCLC) in 1957, serving as its first president. With the SCLC, King led an unsuccessful struggleagainst segregation inAlbany, Georgia, in 1962,and organized nonviolent protests inBirmingham, Alabama, that attracted national attention following television news coverage of the brutal police response. King also helped to organize the 1963March on Washington, wherehe delivered his "I Have a Dream" speech. There, he established his reputation as one of the greatest orators in American history. He also established his reputation as a radical, and became an object of theFederal Bureau of Investigation'sCOINTELPROfor the rest of his life. FBI agents investigated him for possiblecommunistties, recorded his extramarital liaisons and reported on them to government officials, and on one occasion, mailed King a threatening anonymous letter that he interpreted as an attempt to make him commit suicide.On October 14, 1964, King received theNobel Peace Prizefor combating racial inequality throughnonviolence. In 1965, he and the SCLC helped to organize theSelma to Montgomery marchesand the following year, he took the movement north toChicago. In the final years of his life, King expanded his focus to includepovertyand theVietnam War, alienating many of his liberal allies with a 1967 speech titled "Beyond Vietnam". In 1968 King was planning a national occupation of Washington, D.C., to be called thePoor People's Campaign, when he wasassassinatedon April 4, inMemphis, Tennessee. His death was followed byriots in many U.S. cities. Allegations thatJames Earl Ray, the man convicted of killing King, had been framed or acted in concert with government agents persisted for decades after the shooting,and the jury of a 1999 civil trial foundLoyd Jowersto be complicit in a conspiracy against King.King was awarded thePresidential Medal of Freedomand theCongressional Gold Medalposthumously.Martin Luther King, Jr. Daywas established as aU.S. federal holidayin 1986.Hundreds of streetsin the U.S. have been renamed in his honor. Amemorial statueon theNational Mallwas opened to the public in 2011.Early life and educationKing's high school alma mater was named afterAfrican-American scholarBooker T. WashingtonMartin Luther King, Jr. was born on January 15, 1929, inAtlanta, Georgia, to ReverendMartin Luther King, Sr.andAlberta Williams King.[2]His legal name at birth was "Michael King".[3]King's father was also bornMichael King. The father "changed" both names on his own during a 1934 trip toNazi Germanyto attend theFifth Baptist World Alliance CongressinBerlin. It wasduring this time he chose to be called Martin Luther King in honor of the great German reformerMartin Luther.[4]Martin, Jr., was a middle child, between an older sister,Willie Christine King, and a younger brother,Alfred Daniel Williams King.[5]King sang with his church choir at the 1939 Atlanta premiere of the movieGone with the Wind.[6]King was originally skeptical of many of Christianity's claims.[7]At the age of thirteen, he denied thebodily resurrection of JesusduringSunday school. From this point, he stated, "doubts began to spring forth unrelentingly".[8]However, he later concludedthat the Bible has "many profound truths which one cannot escape" and decided to enter theseminary.[7]Growing up in Atlanta, King attendedBooker T. Washington High School. A precocious student, he skipped both the ninth and the twelfth grades and enteredMorehouse Collegeat age fifteen without formally graduating from high school.[9]In 1948, he graduated from Morehouse with aB.A.degree insociology, and enrolled inCrozer Theological SeminaryinChester, Pennsylvania, from which he graduated with aB.Div.degree in 1951.[10][11]King marriedCoretta Scott, on June 18, 1953, on the lawn of her parents' house in her hometown ofHeiberger, Alabama.[12]They became the parents of four children:Yolanda King,Martin Luther King III,Dexter Scott King, andBernice King.[13]During their marriage, King limited Coretta's role in the civil rights movement, and expected her to be a housewife.[14]King became pastor of theDexter Avenue Baptist ChurchinMontgomery, Alabama, when he was twenty-five years old, in 1954.[15]Kingthen began doctoral studies insystematic theologyatBoston Universityand received hisPh.D.degree on June 5, 1955, with adissertationon "A Comparison of the Conceptions of God in the Thinking ofPaul TillichandHenry Nelson Wieman". An academicinquiry concluded in October 1991 that portionsof his dissertation had beenplagiarizedand he had acted improperly, but that his dissertation still "makes an intelligent contribution to scholarship"; the committee recommended thathis degree not be revoked.[16]Ideas, influences, and political stancesReligionAs aChristianminister, Martin Luther King's main influence wasJesus Christand the Christian gospels, which he would almost alwaysquote in his religious meetings and speeches at church; but also in public discourses. King's faithwas strongly based in Jesus' commandment ofloving your neighbor as yourself, loving God above all, and loving your enemies, praying for them and blessing them. Hisnon-violentthought was also based in the injuction toturn the other cheekin theSermon on the Mount, and Jesus' teaching of "putting your sword back into its place" (Matthew 26:52).[17]In hisLetter from Birmingham Jail, King urges action consistent with what he describes as Jesus'"extremist" love, and also quotes numerous otherChristian pacifistauthors, which was very usual for him. In his speechI've Been to the Mountaintop, he states he just wanted to doGod's will.Non-violenceKing at a Civil Rights March on Washington, D.C.Inspired byMahatma Gandhi's success with non-violent activism, King had "for a long time...wanted to take a trip to India".[18]With assistance from theQuakergroup theAmerican Friends Service Committee, he was able to make the journey in April 1959.[19]The trip toIndia affected King, deepening his understanding ofnon-violent resistanceand his commitment to America's struggle for civil rights. In a radio address made during his final evening in India, King reflected, "Since being in India, I am more convinced than ever before that the method of nonviolent resistance is the most potent weapon available to oppressed people in their struggle for justice and human dignity".King's admiration of Gandhi's non-violence did not diminish in later years, he went so far as to hold up his example when receiving the Nobel Peace Prize in 1964, hailing the "successful precedent" of using non-violence "in a magnificent way by Mohandas K. Gandhi to Challenge the might of the British Empire...He struggled only with the weapons of truth, soul force, non-injury and courage."[20]Gandhi seemed to have influenced him with certain moral principles,[21]though Gandhi himself had been influenced byThe Kingdom ofGod Is Within You, a nonviolent classic written by Christian anarchistLeo Tolstoy. In turn, both Gandhi and Martin Luther King had read Tolstoy. King quoted Tolstoy'sWar and Peacein 1959.[22]All three men—Tolstoy, Gandhi, andKing—had been influenced by Jesus' teachings on non-resistance to evil force.Another influence for King's non-violent method wasThoreau's essayOn Civil Disobedience, which King read in his student days influenced by the idea of refusing to cooperate with an evil system.[23]He also wasgreatly influenced by the works of Protestant theologiansReinhold NiebuhrandPaul Tillich,[24]as well asWalter Rauschenbusch'sChristianity and the Social Crisis. In his later career, King use the concept of "agape" (Christian brotherly love), which may have represented an influence ofPaul Ramsey.[25]African-American civil rights activistBayard Rustinhad studied Gandhi's teachings,[26]and Jesus' teachings at the SCLC. Rustin counseled King to dedicate himself to the principles of non-violence,[27]served as King's main advisor and mentor throughout his early activism,[28]and was the main organizer of the 1963 March on Washington.[29]Rustin's open homosexuality, support ofdemocratic socialism, and his former ties to theCommunist Party USAcaused many white and African-American leaders to demand King distance himself from Rustin,[30]which King agreed to do.[31]PoliticsAs the leader of the SCLC, King maintained a policy of not publicly endorsing a U.S. political party or candidate: "I feel someone must remain in the position of non-alignment, so thathe can look objectively at both parties and be the conscience of both—not the servant or master of either."[32]In a 1958 interview, he expressed his view that neither party was perfect, saying, "I don't think the Republican party is a party full of the almighty God nor is the Democratic party. They both have weaknesses ... And I'm not inextricably bound to either party."[33]King critiqued both parties' performance on promoting racial equality:Actually, the Negro has been betrayed by both the Republican and the Democratic party. The Democrats have betrayed him by capitulating tothe whims and caprices of the Southern Dixiecrats. The Republicans have betrayed him by capitulating to the blatant hypocrisy of reactionary right wing northern Republicans. And this coalition of southern Dixiecrats and right wing reactionary northern Republicans defeats every bill and every move towards liberal legislation in the area of civil rights.[34]Although King never publicly supported a political party or candidate for president, in a letter to a civil rights supporter in October 1956he said that he was undecided as to whether he would vote forAdlai StevensonorDwight Eisenhower, but that "In the past I always votedthe Democratic ticket."[35]In his autobiography, King says that in 1960 he privately voted for Democratic candidateJohn F.Kennedy: "I felt that Kennedy would make the best president. I never came out with an endorsement. My father did, but I never made one." King adds that he likely would have made an exception to his non-endorsement policy for a second Kennedy term, saying "Had President Kennedy lived, I would probably have endorsed him in 1964."[36]CompensationKing stated that black Americans, as well as other disadvantaged Americans, should be compensated for historical wrongs. In an interview conducted forPlayboyin 1965, he said that granting black Americans only equality could not realistically close the economic gap between them and whites. King said that he did not seek a full restitution of wages lost to slavery, which he believed impossible, but proposed a government compensatory programof $50 billion over ten years to all disadvantaged groups.[37]He posited that "the money spent would be more than amply justified by the benefits that would accrue to the nation through a spectacular decline in school dropouts, family breakups, crime rates, illegitimacy, swollen relief rolls, rioting and other social evils".[38]He presented this idea as an application of thecommon lawregarding settlement of unpaid labor, but clarified that he felt that the money should not be spent exclusively on blacks. He stated, "It should benefit the disadvantaged ofallraces".[39]Montgomery Bus Boycott, 1955Main articles:Montgomery Bus BoycottandJim Crow laws#Public arenaRosa Parkswith King, 1955In March 1955, a fifteen-year-old school girl in Montgomery,Claudette Colvin, refused to give up her bus seat to a white man in compliance withJim Crow laws, laws in the US South that enforcedracial segregation. King was on the committee from the Birmingham African-American community that looked into the case; because Colvin was pregnant and unmarried,E.D. NixonandClifford Durrdecided to wait for a better case to pursue.[40]On December 1, 1955,Rosa Parkswas arrested for refusing to give up her seat.[41]The Montgomery Bus Boycott, urged and planned byNixon and led by King, soon followed.[42]The boycott lasted for 385 days,[43]and the situation became so tense that King's house wasbombed.[44]King was arrested during this campaign, which concluded with a United States District Court ruling inBrowder v. Gaylethat ended racial segregation on all Montgomery public buses.[45][46]King's role in the bus boycott transformed him into a national figure and the best-known spokesman of the civil rights movement.[47]Southern Christian Leadership ConferenceIn 1957, King,Ralph Abernathy,Fred Shuttlesworth,Joseph Lowery, and other civil rights activists founded theSouthern Christian Leadership Conference(SCLC). The group was created to harness themoral authorityand organizing power of black churches to conduct non-violent protests in the service of civil rightsreform. King led the SCLC until his death.[48]On September 20, 1958, while signing copies ofhis bookStride Toward Freedomin Blumstein's department store in Harlem,[49]King narrowly escaped death whenIzola Curry, a mentally ill black woman who believed he was conspiring against her with communists, stabbed him in the chest with a letter opener. After emergency surgery, King was hospitalized for several weeks, while Curry was found mentally incompetent to stand trial.[50][51]In 1959, he published a short book calledThe Measure of A Man, which contained his sermons "What is Man?" and "The Dimensions of a Complete Life". The sermons argued for man's need for God's love and criticized the racial injustices of Western civilization.[52]Harry Wachtel who joined King's legal advisor Clarence B. Jones in defending four ministers ofthe SCLC in a libel suit over a newspaper advertisement (New York Times Co. v. Sullivan)founded a tax-exempt fund to cover the expenses of the suit and to assist the nonviolentcivil rights movement through a more effective means of fundraising. This organization was named the "Gandhi Society for Human Rights". King served as honorary president for the group. Displeased with the pace of President Kennedy's addressing the issue of segregation, King and the Gandhi Society produced a document in 1962 calling on the President to follow in the footsteps ofAbraham Lincolnand use an Executive Order to deliver a blow for Civil Rights as a kind ofSecond Emancipation Proclamation- Kennedy did not execute the order.[53]Lyndon JohnsonandRobert Kennedywith Civil Rights leaders, June 22, 1963TheFBI, under written directive from Attorney GeneralRobert F. Kennedy, begantappingKing's telephone in the fall of 1963.[54]

NELSON MADIBA MANDELA

His ExcellencyNelson Mandela in johannesburg, on 13 May 2008President of South AfricaIn office10 May 1994 – 14 June 1999DeputyThabo MbekiF. W. de KlerkPreceded byF. W. de KlerkSucceeded byThabo MbekiPersonal detailsBornRolihlahla Mandela18 July 1918Mvezo,Cape ProvinceUnion of South AfricaDied5 December 2013(aged 95)Johannesburg, South AfricaResting placeMandela GraveyardQunu,Eastern Cape31°48′17.15″S28°36′48.7″E/31.8047639°S 28.613528°ENationalitySouth AfricanPolitical partyAfrican National CongressOther politicalaffiliationsSouth African Communist PartySpouse(s)Evelyn Ntoko Mase(m. 1944–1957; divorced)Winnie Madikizela(m. 1958–1996; divorced)Graça Machel(m. 1998–2013; his death)Children*.Thembekile Mandela*.Makaziwe Mandela*.Makgatho Mandela*.Makaziwe Mandela*.Zenani Mandela*.Zindziswa MandelaAlma materUniversity of Fort HareUoL External ProgrammeUniversity of South AfricaUniversity of the WitwatersrandOccupation*.Social Activist*.PoliticianProfessionLawyerReligionMethodist[1][2]Known forAnti-Apartheid MovementAwards*.Bharat Ratna(1990)*.Nobel Peace Prize(1993)*.Order of Lenin*.Presidential Medal of FreedomNotable work(s)Long Walk to FreedomSignatureWebsitewww.nelsonmandela.orgNickname(s)MadibaTataDalibhunga (initiation name)[3]Nelson Rolihlahla Mandela(/mænˈdɛlə/;[4]Xhosapronunciation:[xoˈliːɬaɬa manˈdeːla]; 18 July 1918 – 5 December 2013) was a South Africananti-apartheid revolutionary,politician, andphilanthropistwho served asPresident of South Africafrom 1994 to 1999. He was South Africa's first black chief executive,and the first elected in afully representativedemocratic election.His governmentfocused ondismantling the legacy ofapartheidthrough tackling institutionalised racism, poverty and inequality, and fostering racial reconciliation. Politically anAfrican nationalist and democratic socialist, he served asPresident of the African National Congress(ANC) from 1991 to 1997. Internationally, Mandela was Secretary General of theNon-Aligned Movementfrom 1998 to 1999.AXhosaborn to theThemburoyal family, Mandela attended theFort Hare Universityand theUniversity of Witwatersrand, where he studied law. Living inJohannesburg, he became involved inanti-colonialpolitics, joining the ANCand becoming a founding member of itsYouth League. After theSouth African National Partycame to power in 1948, he rose to prominence in the ANC's 1952Defiance Campaign, was appointed superintendent of the organisation'sTransvaalchapter and presided over the 1955Congress of the People. Working as a lawyer, he was repeatedly arrested for seditious activities and, with the ANC leadership, was unsuccessfully prosecuted in theTreason Trialfrom 1956 to 1961. Influenced byMarxism, he secretly joined theSouth African Communist Party(SACP) and sat on its Central Committee. Although initially committed to non-violent protest, in association with the SACP he co-founded the militantUmkhonto we Sizwe(MK) in 1961, leading asabotagecampaign against the apartheid government. In 1962, he was arrested, convicted of conspiracy to overthrow the state, and sentenced to life imprisonment in theRivonia Trial.Mandela served over 27 years in prison, initiallyonRobben Island, and later inPollsmoor PrisonandVictor Verster Prison. An international campaign lobbied for his release. He was released in 1990, during a time of escalating civil strife. Mandela joined negotiations with PresidentF. W. de Klerkto abolish apartheid and establishmultiracial elections in 1994, in which he led the ANC to victory and became South Africa's first black president. He publishedhis autobiographyin 1995. During his tenure in theGovernment of National Unityhe invited several other political parties to join thecabinet. As agreed to during thenegotiations to end apartheid in South Africa, he promulgated anew constitution. He also created theTruth and Reconciliation Commissionto investigate pasthuman rightsabuses. While continuing the former government'sliberal economic policy, his administration also introduced measures to encourageland reform, combat poverty, and expand healthcare services. Internationally, he acted as mediator between Libya and the United Kingdom in thePan Am Flight 103 bombing trial, and oversawmilitary intervention in Lesotho. He declined to run for a second term, and was succeeded by his deputy,Thabo Mbeki. Mandela became an elder statesman, focusing on charitable work in combating poverty andHIV/AIDSthrough the Nelson Mandela Foundation.Mandela was a controversial figure for much of his life. Denounced as a communistterroristby critics,[5][6]he nevertheless gained international acclaim for his activism, having receivedmore than 250 honours, including the 1993Nobel Peace Prize, the USPresidential Medal of Freedom, the SovietOrder of Leninand theBharat Ratna. He is held in deep respect within South Africa, where he is often referred to by hisXhosa clan name,Madiba, or asTata("Father"); he is often described as "the father of the nation".Early lifeChildhood: 1918–1936Mandela was born on 18 July 1918 in the villageofMvezoinUmtata, then a part of South Africa'sCape Province.[7]Given the forename Rolihlahla, a Xhosa term colloquially meaning"troublemaker",[7]in later years he became known by his clan name, Madiba.[8]Hispatrilinealgreat-grandfather,Ngubengcuka, wasruler of theThembupeople in theTranskeian Territoriesof South Africa's modernEastern Capeprovince.[9]One of this king's sons, namedMandela, became Nelson's grandfather and the source of his surname.[10]Because Mandela was only the king's child by a wife of the Ixhibaclan, a so-called "Left-Hand House", the descendants of hiscadet branchof the royal family weremorganatic, ineligible to inherit the throne but recognised as hereditary royal councillors.[10]His father, Gadla Henry Mphakanyiswa, was a localchiefand councillor to the monarch; he had been appointed to the position in 1915, after his predecessor was accused of corruption by a governing white magistrate.[11]In 1926, Gadla, too, was sackedfor corruption, but Nelson was told that he had lost his job for standing up to the magistrate's unreasonable demands.[12]A devotee of the godQamata,[13]Gadla was apolygamist, having four wives, four sons and nine daughters, who lived in different villages. Nelson's mother was Gadla's third wife, Nosekeni Fanny, who was daughter of Nkedama of the Right Hand House and a member of the amaMpemvu clan of Xhosa.[14]"No one in my family had ever attended school [...] On the first day of school my teacher, Miss Mdingane, gave each of us an English name. This was the custom among Africans in those days and was undoubtedly due to the British bias of our education. That day, Miss Mdingane told me that my new name was Nelson. Why this particular name I have no idea."— Mandela, 1994[15]Later stating that his early life was dominated by "custom, ritual and taboo",[16]Mandela grew up with two sisters in his mother'skraalin the village ofQunu, where he tended herds as a cattle-boy, spending much time outside with other boys.[17]Both his parents were illiterate, but being a devout Christian, his mother sent him to a localMethodistschool when he was about seven. Baptised a Methodist, Mandela was given the English forename of "Nelson" by his teacher.[18]When Mandela was about nine, his father came to stay at Qunu, where he died of an undiagnosed ailment which Mandela believed tobe lung disease.[19]Feeling "cut adrift", he later said that he inherited his father's "proud rebelliousness" and "stubborn sense of fairness".[20]His mother took Mandela to the "Great Place" palace at Mqhekezweni, where he was entrusted under theguardianshipof Themburegent, Chief Jongintaba Dalindyebo. Although he did not see his mother again for many years,Mandela felt that Jongintaba and his wife Noengland treated him as their own child, raising him alongside their son Justice and daughter Nomafu.[21]As Mandela attended church services every Sunday with his guardians, Christianity became a significant partof his life.[22]He attended aMethodistmission school located next to the palace, studying English, Xhosa, history and geography.[23]He developed a love of African history, listening to the tales told by elderly visitors to the palace, and became influenced by the anti-imperialist rhetoric of Chief Joyi.[24]At the time he nevertheless considered the European colonialists as benefactors, not oppressors.[25]Aged 16, he, Justice and several other boys travelled to Tyhalarha to undergo thecircumcisionritual that symbolically marked their transition from boys to men; the rite over, he was given the nameDalibunga.[26]Clarkebury, Healdtown, and Fort Hare: 1936–1940Mandela c. 1937Intending to gain skills needed to become a privy councillor for the Thembu royal house, Mandela began his secondary education at Clarkebury Boarding Institute inEngcobo, a Western-style institution that was the largest school for black Africans inThembuland.[27]Made to socialise with other students on an equal basis, he claimed that he lost his "stuck up" attitude, becoming best friends with a girl for the first time; he began playing sports and developed his lifelong love of gardening.[28]Completing his Junior Certificate in two years,[29]in 1937 he moved toHealdtown, the Methodist college inFort Beaufortattended by most Thembu royalty, including Justice.[30]The headmaster emphasised the superiority of English culture and government, but Mandela became increasingly interested in native Africanculture, making his first non-Xhosa friend, aSotho language-speaker, and coming under the influence of one of his favourite teachers, a Xhosa who broke taboo by marrying a Sotho.[31]Spending much of his spare time long-distance running and boxing, in his second year Mandela became aprefect.[32]With Jongintaba's backing, Mandela began work on a Bachelor of Arts (BA) degree at theUniversity of Fort Hare, an elite black institution inAlice, Eastern Cape, with around 150 students. There he studied English,anthropology, politics, native administration, andRoman Dutch lawin his first year, desiring to become an interpreter or clerk in the Native Affairs Department.[33]Mandela stayed in theWesley House dormitory, befriending his own kinsman,K.D. Matanzima, as well asOliver Tambo, who became a close friend and comrade for decades to come.[34]Continuing his interest in sport, Mandela took up ballroom dancing,[35]performed in a drama society play aboutAbraham Lincoln,[36]and gave Bible classes in the local community as part of the Students Christian Association.[37]Although having friends connected to theAfrican National Congress(ANC) and the anti-imperialist movement who wanted an independent South Africa, Mandela avoided anyinvolvement,[38]and became a vocal supporter of the British war effort when theSecond World Warbroke out.[39]Helping found a first-year students' house committee which challenged the dominance of the second-years,[40]at the end of his first year he became involved in aStudents' Representative Council(SRC) boycott against the quality of food,for which he was temporarily suspended from the university; he left without receiving a degree.[41]Arriving in Johannesburg: 1941–1943Returning to Mqhekezweni in December 1940, Mandela found that Jongintaba hadarranged marriagesfor him and Justice; dismayed, they fled toJohannesburgviaQueenstown, arriving in April 1941.[42]Mandela found work as a night watchman at Crown Mines, his "first sight of South African capitalism in action", but was fired when theinduna(headman) discovered he was a runaway.[43]Staying with a cousin in George Goch Township, Mandela was introduced to the realtor and ANC activistWalter Sisulu, who secured him a job as anarticled clerkat law firm Witkin, Sidelsky and Eidelman. The company was run by a liberal Jew, Lazar Sidelsky, who was sympathetic to the ANC's cause.[44]At the firm, Mandela befriended Gaur Redebe, a Xhosa member of the ANC andCommunist Party, as well as Nat Bregman, a Jewish communist who became his first white friend.[45]Attending communist talks and parties, Mandela was impressed thatEuropeans,Africans,IndiansandColouredswere mixing as equals. He stated later that he did not join the Party because its atheism conflicted with his Christian faith, and because he saw the South African struggle as being racially based rather thanclass warfare.[46]Becoming increasingly politicised, in August 1943 Mandela marched in support of a successful bus boycott to reverse fare rises.[47]Continuing his higher education, Mandela signed up to aUniversity of South Africacorrespondence course, working on his bachelor's degree at night.[48]Earning a small wage, Mandela rented a room inthe house of the Xhoma family in theAlexandratownship; although rife with poverty, crime andpollution, Alexandra always remained "a treasured place" for him.[49]Although embarrassed by his poverty, he briefly courted aSwaziwoman before unsuccessfully courting his landlord's daughter.[50]In order to save money and be closer to downtown Johannesburg, Mandela moved into the compound of theWitwatersrand Native Labour Association, living among miners of various tribes; as the compound was a "way station for visiting chiefs", he once met the Queen Regent ofBasutoland.[51]In late 1941, Jongintaba visited, forgiving Mandela for running away. On returning to Thembuland, the regent died in winter 1942; Mandela and Justice arrived a day late for the funeral.[52]After passing his BA exams in early 1943, Mandela returned to Johannesburg to follow a political path as a lawyer rather than become a privy councillor in Thembuland.[53]He later stated that he experienced no epiphany, but that he "simply found myself doing so, and could not do otherwise."[54]Revolutionary activityLaw studies and the ANC Youth League: 1943–1949Beginning law studies at theUniversity of Witwatersrand, Mandela was the only native African student, and though facing racism, he befriended liberal and communist European, Jewish, and Indian students, among themJoe Slovo,Harry SchwarzandRuth First.[55]Joining the ANC, Mandela was increasingly influenced by Sisulu, spending much time with other activists at Sisulu'sOrlandohouse, including old friend Oliver Tambo.[56]In 1943,Mandela metAnton Lembede, anAfrican nationalistvirulently opposed to a racially united front against colonialism and imperialism or to an alliance with the communists.[57]Despite his friendships with non-blacks and communists, Mandela supportedLembede's views, believing that black Africans should be entirely independent in their strugglefor political self-determination.[58]Deciding on the need for a youth wing to mass mobilise Africans in opposition to their subjugation, Mandela was among a delegation that approached ANC PresidentAlfred Bitini Xumaon the subject at his home inSophiatown; theAfrican National Congress Youth League(ANCYL)was founded on Easter Sunday 1944 in theBantu Men's Social Centrein Eloff Street, with Lembede as President and Mandela

Hyena

                    Hyenas Hyenasorhyaenas(fromGreek"ὕαινα" —hýaina[1]) are the animals of the familyHyaenidae/haɪˈɛnɨdiː/of thefeliforuborderof theCarnivora. With only four species, it is the fourth-smallestbiological familyin the Carnivora, and one of the smallest in the classMammalia.[2]Despite their low diversity, hyenas are unique and vital components to mostAfricanand someAsianecosystems.[3]Althoughphylogeneticallyclose tofelinesandviverrids, hyenas are behaviourally and morphologically similar tocaninesinseveral aspects; both hyenas and canines are nonarboreal,cursorialhunters that catch prey with their teeth rather than claws. Both eat food quickly and may store it, and their calloused feet with large, blunt, nonretractable nails are adapted for running and making sharp turns. However, the hyenas' grooming, scent marking, defecating habits, mating, and parental behaviour are consistent with the behaviour of other feliforms.[4]Although long reputed to be cowardly scavengers, hyenas, especiallyspotted hyenas, kill as much as 95% of the foodthey eat,[5]and have been known to drive off leopards or lionesses from their kills. Hyenas are primarily nocturnal animals, but may venture from their lairs in the early-morning hours. With the exception of the highly social spotted hyena, hyenas are generally notgregariousanimals, though they may live in family groups and congregate at kills.[6]Hyenas first arose in Eurasia during theMioceneperiod from viverrid-like ancestors, and developed into two distinct branches; the lightlybuilt dog-like hyenas and the robust bone-crushing hyenas. Although the dog-like hyenas thrived 15 million years ago (with onetaxonhaving colonised North America), they died out after a change in climate along with the arrival ofcanidsinto Eurasia. Of the dog-likehyena lineage, only the insectivorousaardwolfsurvived, while the bone-crushing hyenas (whoseextantmembers are thespotted,brownandstriped hyenas) became the undisputed topscavengers of Eurasia and Africa.[7]Hyenas feature prominently in the folklore and mythology of human cultures with which they aresympatric. Hyenas are mostly viewed with fear and contempt, as well as being associated with witchcraft, as their body parts are used as ingredients intraditional medicine. Among the beliefs held by some cultures, hyenas are thought to influence people’s spirits, rob graves,and steal livestock and children.[8]EvolutionOriginsHyenas originated in the jungles ofMioceneEurasia 22 million years ago, when most early feliform species were still largelyarboreal. Thefirst ancestral hyenas were likely similar to the modernbanded palm civet; one of the earliest hyena species exhumed,Plioviverrops, was a lithe, civet-like animal that inhabited Eurasia 20–22 million years ago, and is identifiable as a hyaenid by the structure of themiddle earand dentition. The lineage ofPlioviverropsprospered, and gave rise to descendants with longer legs and more pointed jaws, a direction similar to that taken by canids inNorth America.[7]Rise and fall of the dog-like hyenasSkull ofIctitherium viverrinum, one of the"dog-like" hyenas.American Museum of Natural HistoryThe descendants ofPlioviverropsreached their peak 15 million years ago, with more than 30 species having been identified. Unlike most modern hyena species, which are specialised bone-crushers, these dog-like hyenas were nimble-bodied, wolfish animals; one species among them wasIctitheriumviverrinum, whichwas similar to ajackal. The dog-like hyenas were very numerous; in some Miocene fossil sites, the remains ofIctitheriumand other dog-like hyenas outnumber those of all other carnivores combined. The decline of the dog-like hyenas began 5–7 million years ago during a period of climate change, which was exacerbated whencanidscrossed theBering land bridgeto Eurasia. One species,Chasmaporthetes ossifragus, managed to cross the land bridge into North America, being the only hyena to do so.Chasmopothertesmanagedto survive for some time in North America by deviating from thecursorialand bone-crushing niches monopolised by canids, and developing into acheetah-like sprinter. Most of the dog-like hyenas had died off by 1.5 million years ago.[7]Bone-crushing hyenasBy 10–12 million years ago, the hyena family had split into two distinct groups; that of the dog-like hyenas and the bone-crushing hyenas. The arrival of the ancestral bone-crushing hyenas coincided with the decline of the similarly built but unrelatedPercrocutidaefamily. The bone-crushing hyenas survived the devastating changes in climate and the arrival ofcanids, which wiped out the dog-like hyenas, though they never crossed into North America, as their niche there had already been taken by theBorophaginaefamily. By 5 million years ago, the bone-crushing hyenas became the dominant scavengers of Eurasia, primarily feeding on large herbivore carcasses felled bysabre-toothed cats. One genus,Pachycrocuta, was a 200 kg (440 lb) mega-scavenger that couldsplinter the bones ofelephants. With the decline of large herbivores by the late ice age,Pachycrocutawas replaced by the smallerCrocuta.[7]Rise of modern hyenasTheaardwolfcan trace its lineage directly back toPlioviverrops15 million years ago, and is the only survivor of the dog-like hyena lineage. Its success is partly attributed to its insectivorous diet, for which it faced no competition from canids crossing from North America. Its unrivaled ability to digest theterpeneexcretions from soldiertermitesis likely a modification of the strong digestive system its ancestors used to digest fetid carrion.[7]Skeletons of astriped hyenaand aspotted hyena, two species of the "bone-crushing" hyenas.Muséum national d'histoire naturelleThestriped hyenamay have evolved fromH. namaquensisofPlioceneAfrica. Striped hyena fossils are common in Africa, with records goingback as far as the MiddlePleistoceneand even to the Villafranchian. As fossil striped hyenas are absent from theMediterraneanregion, it is likely that the species is a relatively late invaderto Eurasia, having likely spread outside Africa only after the extinction ofspotted hyenasin Asia at the end of theIce Age. The striped hyena occurred for some time inEuropeduring the Pleistocene, having been particularly widespread inFranceandGermany. It also occurred inMontmaurin,HollabrunninAustria,the Furninha Cave inPortugaland the Genista Caves inGibraltar. The European form was similar in appearance to modern populations, but was larger, being comparable in size to thebrown hyena.[9]Thespotted hyenadiverged from the striped and brown hyena 10 million years ago.[10]Its direct ancestor was the IndianCrocuta sivalensis, which lived during the Villafranchian.[11]Ancestral spotted hyenas probably developed social behaviours in response to increased pressure from rivals on carcasses, thus forcing them to operate in teams. Spotted hyenas evolved sharpcarnassialsbehind their crushing premolars, therefore they did not need to wait for their prey to die, as is the case for brown and striped hyenas, and thus became pack hunters as well as scavengers. They began forming increasingly largerterritories, necessitated by the fact that their prey was often migratory, and long chases in a small territory would have caused them to encroach into another clan's turf.[7]Spotted hyenas spread from their original homeland during theMiddle Pleistocene, and quickly colonised a verywide area from Europe, to southern Africa andChina.[11]With the decline of grasslands 12,500 years ago, Europe experienced a massive loss of lowland habitats favoured by spotted hyenas, and a corresponding increase inmixed woodlands. Spotted hyenas, under these circumstances, would have been outcompeted bywolvesandhumans, who were as much at home in forests as in open lands—and in highlands as in lowlands. Spotted hyena populations began to shrink after roughly 20,000 years ago, completely disappearing fromWestern Europebetween 11 and 14 thousand years ago, and earlier in some areas.[12]Genera of the Hyaenidae (extinct and recent)Reconstruction ofPachycrocutabrevirostrisAspotted hyenaof subfamily HyaeninaeThe list follows McKenna and BellsClassificationof Mammalsfor prehistoric genera (1997)[13]and Wozencraft (2005) in Wilson and ReedersMammal Species of the Worldfor extant genera.[14]The Percrocutids are, in contrast toMcKenna and Bell's classification, not included as a subfamily into the Hyaenidae, but as the separate familyPercrocutidae. Furthermore, the living brown hyena and its closest extinct relatives are not included in the genusPachycrocuta, but in the genusHyaena. TheProtelinae(Aardwolves) are not treated as a separate subfamily, but included in theHyaeninae.*.Family Hyaenidae*.*.†Tongxinictis(Middle Miocene of Asia)*.†Subfamily Ictitheriinae*.†Herpestides(Early Miocene of Africa and Eurasia)*.†Plioviverrops(includingJordanictis,Protoviverrops,Mesoviverrops; Early Miocene to Early Pliocene of Europe, Late Miocene of Asia)*.†Ictitherium(=Galeotherium; includingLepthyaena,Sinictitherium,Paraictitherium; Middle Miocene of Africa, Late Miocene to Early Pliocene of Eurasia)*.†Thalassictis(includingPalhyaena,Miohyaena,Hyaenictitherium,Hyaenalopex; Middle to Late Miocene of Asia, Late Miocene of Africa and Europe)*.†Hyaenotherium(Late Miocene to Early Pliocene of Eurasia)*.†Miohyaenotherium(Late Miocene of Europe)*.†Lychyaena(Late Miocene of Eurasia)*.†Tungurictis(Middle Miocene of Africa and Eurasia)*.†Proictitherium(Middle Miocene of Africaand Asia, Middle to Late Miocene of Europe)*.Subfamily Hyaeninae*.†Palinhyaena(Late Miocene of Asia)*.†Ikelohyaena(Early Pliocene of Africa)*.Hyaena(=Euhyaena, =Hyena; includingbrown Hyena,Pliohyaena,Pliocrocuta,Anomalopithecus) Early Pliocene (?MiddleMiocene) to Recent of Africa, Late Pliocene (?Late Miocene) to Late Pleistocene of Europe, Late Pliocene to recent in Asia*.†Hyaenictis(Late Miocene of Asia?, Late Miocene of Europe, Early Pliocene (?Early Pleistocene) of Africa)*.†Leecyaena(Late Miocene and/or Early Pliocene of Asia)*.†Chasmaporthetes(=Ailuriaena; includingLycaenops,Euryboas; Late Miocene to Early Pleistocene of Eurasia, Early Plioceneto Late Pliocene or Early Pleistocene of Africa, Late Pliocene to Early Pleistocene of North America)*.†Pachycrocuta(Pliocene and Pleistocene of Eurasia and Africa)*.†Adcrocuta(Late Miocene of Eurasia)*.Crocuta(=Crocotta; includingEucrocuta; Late Pliocene to recent of Africa, Late Pliocene to Late Pleistocene of Eurasia)*.Subfamily Protelinae*.Proteles(=Geocyon; Pleistocene to Recent of Africa)CharacteristicsBuildFurther information:Spotted hyena#Physical description,Striped hyena#Physical description,Aardwolf#Physical characteristics, andBrown hyena#DescriptionStriped hyena skull. Note the disproportionately large carnassials and premolars adapted for bone consumptionAardwolf skull. Note the greatly reduced molars and carnassials, rendered redundant from insectivoryHyenas have relatively short torsos and are fairly massive and wolf-like in build, but have lower hind quarters, high withers and their backs slope noticeably downward toward their croups. The forelegs are high, while the hind legs are very short and their necks are thick andshort. Their skulls superficially resemble those of large canids, but are much larger and heavier, with shorter facial portions. Hyenas aredigitigrade, with the fore and hind paws having four digits each and sporting bulging pawpads.[15]Like canids, hyenas have short, blunt, non-retractable claws.[16]Theirpelageis sparse and coarse with poorly developed or absent underfur. Most species have a rich maneof long hair running from the withers or from the head.[15]With the exception of the spotted hyena, hyaenids have striped coats, which they likely inherited from their viverrid ancestors.[7]Their ears are large and have simple basal ridges and no marginal bursa.[16]Theirvertebral column, including thecervical regionare of limited mobility. Hyenas have nobaculum.[17]Hyenas have an additional pair of ribs than canids, and their tongues are rough like those of felids and viverrids.[18]Males in most hyena species are larger than females,[19]though the spotted hyena is exceptional, as it is the female of the species that outweighs and dominates the male. Also, unlike other hyenas, thefemale spotted hyena's external genitaliaclosely resembles that of the male.[20]Theirdentitionis similar to that of theFelidae, but is more specialised for consuming coarse food and crushing bones. Thecarnassials, especially the upper, are very powerful and are shifted far back to the point of exertion of peak pressure on the jaws. The other teeth, save for the underdeveloped uppermolars, are powerful, with broad bases and cutting edges. Thecaninesare short, but thick and robust.[17]Labiolingually, theirmandiblesare much stronger at the canine teeth than in canids, reflecting the fact that hyenas crack bones with both their anterior dentition and premolars, unlike canids, which do so with their post-carnassial molars.[21]The strength of their jaws is such that both striped and spotted hyenas have been recorded to kill dogs with a single bite to the neck without breaking the skin.[22][23]The spotted hyena is renowned for its strong bite proportional to its size, but a number of other animals (including theTasmanian devil) are proportionately stronger.[24][25]The aardwolf has greatly reduced cheek teeth, sometimes absent in the adult, butotherwise has the same dentition as the other three species.[26]Thedental formulafor all hyena species is:3.1.4.13.1.3.1Hyenas lackperinealscent glands, but have a large pouch of naked skin located at the anal opening. Large anal glands open into it from above theanus. Severalsebaceous glandsare present between the openings of the anal glands and above them.[16]These glands produce a white, creamy secretion the hyenas paste onto grass stalks. The odour ofthis secretionis very strong, smelling of boiling cheapsoapor burning, and can be detected by humans several metres downwind.[27]The secretions are primarily used forterritorial marking, though both the aardwolf[7]and the striped hyena[28]willspraythem when attacked.BehaviourSee also:Spotted hyena#Behaviour,Brown hyena#Behavior,Striped hyena#Behavior, andAardwolf#BehaviorSpotted hyena cubs at their denBrown hyena cub standing on a path of stonesHyenas groom themselves often like felids and viverrids, and their way oflicking their genitalsis very cat-like (sitting on the lower back, legs spread with one leg pointing vertically upward). However, unlike other feliforms, they do not"wash" their faces. They defecate in the same manner as other Carnivora, though they neverraise their legs as canids do when urinating, as urination serves no territorial function for them. Instead, hyenasmark their territoriesusing their anal glands, a trait found also inviverridsandmustelids, but not canids andfelids.[29]When attacked by lions or dogs, striped[30]and brown hyenas[31]willfeign death, though the spotted hyena will defend itself ferociously.[23]The spotted hyena is very vocal, producing a number of different sounds consisting of whoops, grunts, groans, lows, giggles, yells, growls, laughs and whines.[29]The striped hyena is comparatively silent, its vocalisations being limited to a chattering laugh and howling.[32]Matingbetween hyenas involves a number of short copulations with brief intervals, unlike canids, who generallyengage in a single, drawn out copulation.[29]Spotted hyena cubs are next